Classes

Classes define an objects behavior and state. Behavior is defined by methods which live in the class. Every object of the same class supports the same methods. State is defined in properties, whose values are stored in each instance.

Defining A Class

Classes are created using the class keyword, unsurprisingly:

class CoffeeMaker {
  //
}

This creates a class named CoffeeMaker with no methods or properties.

Methods

To add functionality to our coffee maker class, we need to give it methods.

class CoffeeMaker {
    function brew() {
        print("Your coffee is now brewing.")
    }
}

This defines a brew method that takes no arguments. To add parameters, put their names inside the parentheses:

class CoffeeMaker {
    function brew(dosage, temperature) {
        print("Your %s of coffee is now brewing at %s degrees.".format(dosage, temperature))
    }
}

Method Scope

Up to this point, "scope" has been used to talk exclusively about variables. In a procedural language like C, or a functional one like Scheme, that's the only kind of scope there is. But object-oriented languages like Zaid introduce another kind of scope: object scope. It contains the methods that are available on an object. When you write:

Coffee.brew()

you're saying "look up the method brew in the scope of the object Coffee". In this case, the fact that you want to look up a method brew and not a variable is explicit. That's what . does and the object to the left of the period is the object you want to look up the method on.

this

Things get more interesting when you're inside the body of a method. When the method is called on some object and the body is being executed, you often need to access that object itself. You can do that using this.

class CoffeeMaker {
    function setGrind(grind) {
        this.grind = grind
    }

    function printGrind() {
        this.setGrind("course")

        print(this.grind)
    }
}

The this keyword works sort of like a variable, but has special behavior. It always refers to the instance whose method is currently being executed. This lets you invoke methods on "yourself".

It's an error to refer to this outside of a method. However, it's perfectly fine to use it inside a method. When you do, this still refers to the instance whose method is being called:

class CoffeeMaker {
    function setGrind(grind) {
        this.grind = grind
    }

    function printGrindThrice() {
        this.setGrind("course")

        for (i in 1 .. 3) {
            print(this.grind)
        }
    }
}

This is unlike Lua and Dart which can "forget" this when you create a callback inside a method. Zaid does what you want here and retains the reference to the original object.

(In technical terms, a function's closure includes this. Zaid can do this because it makes a distinction between methods and functions.)

Constructors

We've seen how to define classes and how to declare methods on them. Our coffee maker can brew coffee, but we don't actually have any way to control it. To create instances of a class, we need a constructor. You define one like so:

class CoffeeMaker {
    function constructor(grind, temperature) {
        print("Grind set to: %s".format(grind))
        print("Temperature set to: %s".format(temperature))
    }
}

The constructor keyword says we're defining a constructor. To make a coffee maker now, we can now pass through the set arguments to customize our class:

drip = CoffeeMaker.new("flat", "200")
chemex = CoffeeMaker.new("coarse", "202")
pourOver = CoffeeMaker.new("fine", "202")
frenchPress = CoffeeMaker.new("very course", "202")

Note that we didn't need to call the constructor method directly. A constructor is actually a method on the class. When we reference a class using new(), Zaid creates the new instance, then it invokes the constructor on that instance. This is where the constructor body you defined gets run.

This distinction is important because it means inside the body of the constructor, you can access this, assign properties, etc.

Properties

All state stored in instances are stored in properties. Each property has a name, are bound to this, and act the same as variables.

class CoffeeMaker {
    function constructor(grind, temperature) {
        this.grind = grind
        this.temperator = temperature

        this.printSettings()
    }

    function printSettings() {
        print("Grind set to: %s".format(this.grind))
        print("Temperature set to: %s".format(this.temperature))
    }
}

Inheritance

A class can inherit from a "parent" or superclass. When you invoke a method on an object of some class, if it can't be found, it walks up the chain of superclasses looking for it there.

To inherit another class, use extends when you declare your class:

class Bar extends Foo {
  //
}

This declares a new class Bar that inherits from Foo.

Traits

In addition to class inheritance, Zaid supports traits. Traits are like classes, but they can't be instantiated. Instead, they're used to share methods and properties between classes.

trait Brewable {
  function brew() {
    print("Your coffee is now brewing.")
  }
}

This defines a trait named Brewable with a brew method. To use it, you use the use keyword when declaring your class:

class CoffeeMaker {
  use Brewable
}

This declares a class CoffeeMaker that inherits from Brewable. It's as if you had written:

class CoffeeMaker {
  function brew() {
    print("Your coffee is now brewing.")
  }
}

You can use multiple traits by separating them with commas:

class CoffeeMaker {
  use Brewable, Cleanable
}